Physical and monetary characterization of global nickel flow network

Nickel is a critical material to industrial applications and future low-carbon societies, due to its essential role in the steel industry and batteries. This study employs a combination of material flow analysis and complex network analysis to delve into the global nickel resource - its production, trade, and usage patterns, as well as their associated impacts. Results reveal an uneven global nickel trade distribution in 2021, necessitating an expansive trade network involving 232 countries and regions. Most trade activity was seen in intermediate nickel products, especially from Indonesia to China. Key commodities traded included ferronickel, nickel metal, stainless steel, and engineering products. Twenty core countries, including China, the U.S., and Indonesia, emerged as key nodes, dominating 74% of global nickel trade value, indicating concentrated production and trade activities. Developed countries typically occupied high value-added links in the industry chain. In terms of unit price of nickel, China benefited most per unit exported, while Australia incurred the highest import cost. Drawing on these findings, the study proposes several policy recommendations to enhance the sustainability of the nickel supply.