The digital maze: digital inclusion and exclusion in the everyday lives of low-literate Dutch adults

This dissertation examines how low-literate Dutch adults experience and navigate a digital society in relation to linguistic constraints and socio-digital inequality. Based on observations and interviews in three environments (vocational education, public libraries, and a community centre), it shows that digital inclusion is commonly experienced as an enforced necessity rather than a preference. Digital-by-default policies and service designs relocate administrative work to citizens and can reproduce, or intensify, existing disadvantage.

The analysis identifies a layered and mutually reinforcing set of barriers. Social barriers concern the availability of trusted help and the durability of support networks. Cultural barriers stem from text-heavy norms, bureaucratic language, and implicit expectations about what a “normal” user can read, write, and comprehend. Material barriers extend beyond device ownership to include authentication steps, interfaces that assume computer use, and unstable connectivity. Affective barriers are often decisive: shame, fear of errors, loss of autonomy, and a sense of not belonging reduce confidence and discourage help-seeking. Political barriers arise when techno-solutionist programmes and mandatory online channels leave little room to opt out or participate in alternative manners, producing feedback loops of exclusion.

Low-literate adults, nonetheless, display agency and resilience. They develop digital literacies through creative tactics and informal means of communication, for example with voice messages, visual and audio cues, translation apps, camera-based text scanning, and coordinated co-reading and co-clicking with others. These tactics enable access, but can also increase dependency and yield uneven, fragmented participation.

The study argues for socio-digital inclusion: strengthen local human support, safeguard credible offline alternatives, and co-design services that respect diverse literacy practices so digital citizenship becomes possible without being compulsory.