An elemental exploration of the metal contents of an early 13th-century craft box from Lõhavere, using pXRF

The craft box recovered from a 13th-century hillfort at Lôhavere, Estonia, contained a well- preserved selection of copper-alloy objects. The limited corrosion on these objects allowed a more accurate estimation of their compositions through non-destructive surface measurements. Using the resulting pXRF database, this study explored a possible correlation between the types of objects and their material composition. By comparing the most common contaminants with the alloying metals, a qualitative estimation of the material quality was conducted. The results showed that despite a considerable overlap between object types, the material composition dif­fered based on the items’ appearance and function. A shift from brass to bronze and tinned objects coincided with a greater availability of tin at the hillfort, as well as a rise in silversmith- ing. Moreover, objects with a silver appearance seemed to be more desirable in this period, apart from some high-status personal ornaments and traditional spiral tube decorations. The results possibly reflect different metalworking practices compared to earlier periods and contempo­rary sites. Some evidence of recycling is present among the spiral tubes, suggesting that they originated from different raw material sources, possibly removed from obsolete clothing. Alternatively, this could indicate a varying quality of imported copper-alloy, including wire, along the Hansa trade routes.